Elevated AFP levels are found in the majority of patients with hepatocellular carcinoma and non-seminomatous testicular carcinoma.
CA 15-3 may be useful in monitoring response to therapy in patients with metastatic breast cancer. A majority of patients with a CA 15-3 increase of greater than 25% have disease progression.
CA 19-9 is useful for monitoring colorectal, gastrointestinal, liver, and pancreatic malignancies.
Elevations of direct (conjugated) bilirubin are typically the result of an obstruction within the liver or a source outside the liver; for example, gallstones or a tumor blocking the bile ducts.